Footnotes

  1. The content for this Toolkit was developed by American Institutes for Research (AIR), in collaboration with Early Edge California and ML experts and PD developers around the country.
  2. Examples of research drawn from include: Baker, S., Lesaux, N., Jayanthi, M., Dimino, J., Proctor, C. P., Morris, J., . . . & Newman-Gonchar, R. (2014). Teaching academic content and literacy to English learners in elementary and middle school (NCEE 2014-4012). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance. Retrieved from https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/Docs/practiceguide/english_learners_pg_040114.pdf; National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. (2017). Promoting the educational success of children and youth learning English: Promising futures. National Academies Press. Retrieved from: https://www.nap.edu/catalog/24677/promoting-the-educational-success-of-children-and-youth-learning-english; National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. (2018). English learners in STEM subjects: Transforming classrooms, schools, and lives. National Academies Press. Retrieved from: https://www.nationalacademies.org/our-work/supporting-english-learners-in-stemsubjects#sectionPublications; In addition to peer-reviewed journal articles, we drew on the following resources from the field to inform the strategies that are included: California English Learner Roadmap, What Works Clearinghouse – Teaching Academic Content and Literacy to English Learners in Elementary and Middle School, California Department of Education (CDE) Resource on Improving Education for Multilingual Learners, CDE ELA/ELD Framework, California Preschool Learning Foundations, California Preschool Curriculum Framework, California Best Practices for Young DLLs – Research Overview, CA Preschool Program Guidelines – Chapter 6
  3. National Academies of Science, Engineering, and Medicine, Promoting the Educational Success of Children and Youth Learning English: Promising Futures (Washington, DC: National Academies Press, 2017), www.nap.edu/catalog/24677/promoting-the-educational-success-ofchildren-and-youth-learning-english.
  4. Cummins J. The construct of language proficiency in bilingual education. In: Atlatis J, editor. Current issues in bilingual education. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press; 1980. pp. 81–103.; Cobo-Lewis A, Eilers R, Pearson BZ, Umbel V. Interdependence of Spanish and English knowledge in language and literacy among bilingual children. In: Eilers R, Ollers K, editors. Language and literacy in bilingual children. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters; 2002. pp. 118–134; Pham, G., Donovan, D., Dam, Q., & Contant, A. (2018). Learning words and definitions in two languages: What promotes cross-language transfer?. Language Learning, 68(1), 206-233. https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12274
  5. Conboy, B. (2013). Neuroscience Research: How Experience with One or Multiple Languages Affects the Developing Brain. In California’s Best Practices for Young Dual Language Learners: Research Overview Papers, Child Development Division, California Department of Education (CDE). Available online at https://www.cde.ca.gov/sp/cd/re/documents/dllresearchpapers.pdf
  6. Barac, R., Bialystok, E., Castro, D. C., & Sanchez, M. (2014). The cognitive development of young dual language learners: A critical review. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 29(4), 699-714.; Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I., & Luk, G. (2012). Bilingualism: Consequences for mind and brain. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 16(4), 240–250.
  7. Thompson, K. D. (2017). English learners’ time to reclassification: An analysis. Educational Policy, 31(3), 330-363.; Arellano, B., Liu, F., Stoker, G., & Slama, R. (2018). Initial Spanish Proficiency and English Language Development among Spanish-Speaking English Learner Students in New Mexico. REL 2018-286. Regional Educational Laboratory Southwest.; Halle, T., Hair, E., Wandner, L., McNamara, M., & Chien, N. (2012). Predictors and outcomes of early versus later English language proficiency among English language learners. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 27(1), 1–20
  8. Halgunseth, L., Jia, G., & Barbarin, O. (2013). Family engagement in early childhood programs: Serving families of dual language learners. In California’s Best Practices for Young Dual Language Learners: Research Overview Papers (119-171). Sacramento, CA: Governor’s State Advisory Council on Early Learning and Care.
  9. Espinosa, L., & Crandell, J. (2020). Early learning and care for multilingual and dual language learners ages zero to five. In California Department of Education (Ed.), Improving education for multilingual and English learner students: Research to practice (Ch. 4). California Department of Education. www.cde.ca.gov/sp/el/er/improvingmleleducation.asp; Lopez, L. M., & Paez, M.M. (2020). Dual Language Learners: What Early Childhood Educators Need to Know. Baltimore: Brookes Publishing Co.
  10. Cavazos, L., Linan-Thompson, S., & Ortiz, A. (2018). Job-embedded professional development for teachers of English learners: Preventing literacy difficulties through effective core instruction. Teacher Education and Special Education, 41(3), 203-214.; Zepeda, S. J. (2014). Job-embedded professional development: Support, collaboration, and learning in schools. New York: Routledge.
  11. Brodziak de los Reyes, I., White, L., Manship, K., Carbuccia-Abbott, M., Handjojo, C. Anthony, J., & Quick, H. (2021). Research Brief: Approaches to Supporting Dual Language Learners in California’s Early Learning and Care Programs. American Institutes for Research. https://tinyurl.com/z4yhvvwu; Manship, K., Brodziak de los Reyes, I., & Quick, H. (2020). Quick Facts: The Landscape of Early Learning and Care Programs Serving Dual Language Learners in California. American Institutes for Research. https://tinyurl.com/rfa4bucc
  12. Park, M., Zong, J., & Batalova, J. (2018). Growing Superdiversity among Young U.S. Dual Language Learners and Its Implications. Migration Policy Institute. www.migrationpolicy.org/research/growing-superdiversity-among-young-us-dual-language-learners-and-its-implications
  13. Baker, M. & Páez, M.M. (2018). The Language of the Classroom: Dual Language Learners in Head Start, Public Pre-K, and Private Preschool Programs. Washington, DC: Migration Policy Institute.
  14. Baker, S., Lesaux, N., Jayanthi, M., Dimino, J., Proctor, C. P., Morris, J., . . . & Newman-Gonchar, R. (2014). Teaching academic content and literacy to English learners in elementary and middle school (NCEE 2014-4012). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance. Retrieved from https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/Docs/ practiceguide/english_learners_pg_040114.pdf
  15. Examples of research drawn from include: Barnett, W.S., Yarosz, D.J., Thomas, J. Jung, K.H., & Blanco, D. (2007). Two-way and monolingual English immersion in preschool education: An experimental comparison. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 22, 277-293.; Durán, L. K., Roseth, C. J., & Hoffman, P. (2010). An experimental study comparing English-only and transitional bilingual education on Spanish-speaking preschoolers’ early literacy development. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 25(2), 207-217.; Durán, L., Roseth, C. J., & Hoffman, P. (2015). Effects of transitional bilingual education on Spanish-speaking preschoolers’ literacy and language development: Year 2 results. Applied Psycholinguistics, 36(4), 921-951.; Méndez, L. I., Crais, E. R., Castro, D. C., & Kainz, K. (2015). A culturally and linguistically responsive vocabulary approach for young Latino dual language learners. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 58(1), 93-106.; Méndez, L. I., Crais, E. R., & Kainz, K. (2018). The impact of individual differences on a bilingual vocabulary approach for Latino preschoolers. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 61(4), 897-909.; Simon-Cereijido, G., & Gutiérrez-Clellen, V. F. (2014). Bilingual education for all: Latino dual language learners with language disabilities. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 17(2), 235-254.
  16. González, N., Moll, L. C., & Amanti, C. (Eds.). (2006). Funds of knowledge: Theorizing practices in households, communities, and classrooms. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum & Associates
  17. Durand, T. M. (2011). Latino Parental Involvement in Kindergarten: Findings from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 33(4), 469-489.; Fantuzzo, J., McWayne, C., Perry, M. A., & Childs, S. (2004). Multiple dimensions of family involvement and their relations to behavioral and learning competencies for urban, low-income children. School psychology review, 33(4), 467–480.; Halgunseth, L., Jia, G., & Barbarin, O. (2013). Family engagement in early childhood programs: Serving families of dual language learners. In California’s Best Practices for Young Dual Language Learners: Research Overview Papers (119-171). Sacramento, CA: Governor’s State Advisory Council on Early Learning and Care.; Jeynes, W. (2012). A meta-analysis of the efficacy of different types of parental involvement programs for urban students. Urban education, 47(4), 706–742.; Lin, Q. (2003). Parent involvement and early literacy. Harvard Family Research Project.
  18. Phinney, J. S., Horenczyk, G., Liebkind, K., & Vedder, P. (2001). Ethnic identity, immigration, and well-being: An interactional perspective. Journal of social issues, 57(3), 493-510.; Schwartz, M., Moin, V., Leikin, M., & Breitkopf, A. (2010). Immigrant parents’ choice of a bilingual versus monolingual kindergarten for second-generation children: Motives, attitudes, and factors. International Multilingual Research Journal, 4(2), 107–124.
  19. Lopez, L. M., & Paez, M.M. (2020). Dual Language Learners: What Early Childhood Educators Need to Know. Baltimore: Brookes Publishing Co.
  20. Espinosa, L., & Crandell, J. (2020). Early learning and care for multilingual and dual language learners ages zero to five. In California Department of Education (Ed.), Improving education for multilingual and English learner students: Research to practice (Ch. 4). California Department of Education. www.cde.ca.gov/sp/el/er/improvingmleleducation.asp
  21. Halgunseth, L., Jia, G., & Barbarin, O. (2013). Family engagement in early childhood programs: Serving families of dual language learners. In California’s Best Practices for Young Dual Language Learners: Research Overview Papers (119-171). Sacramento, CA: Governor’s State Advisory Council on Early Learning and Care.
  22. Chang, F., Crawford, G., Early, D., Bryant, D., Howes, C., Burchinal, M., Barbarin, O., Clifford, R., & Pianta, R. (2007). Spanish-speaking children’s social and language development in pre-kindergarten classrooms. Early Education and Development, 18(2), 243–269.
  23. Espinosa, L., & Crandell, J. (2020). Early learning and care for multilingual and dual language learners ages zero to five. In California Department of Education (Ed.), Improving education for multilingual and English learner students: Research to practice (Ch. 4). California Department of Education. www.cde.ca.gov/sp/el/er/improvingmleleducation.asp
  24. Castro, D. C., Espinosa, L., & Páez, M. (2011). Defining and measuring quality early childhood practices that promote dual language learners’ development and learning. In M. Zaslow, I. Martinez-Beck, K. Tout, & T. Halle (Eds.), Quality measurement in early childhood settings, (pp. 257- 280). Baltimore: Brookes Publishing.
  25. Examples of research drawn from include: Buysse, V., Castro, D. C., & Peisner-Feinberg, E. (2010). Effects of a professional development program on classroom practices and outcomes for Latino dual language learners. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 25(2), 194–206.; Castro, D. C., Gillanders, C., Franco, X., Bryant, D. M., Zepeda, M., Willoughby, M. T., & Méndez, L. I. (2017). Early education of dual language learners: An efficacy study of the Nuestros Niños School Readiness professional development program. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 40, 188–203.; Durán, L., Roseth, C. J., & Hoffman, P. (2015). Effects of transitional bilingual education on Spanish-speaking preschoolers’ literacy and language development: Year 2 results. Applied Psycholinguistics, 36(4), 921-951.; Simon-Cereijido, G., & Gutiérrez-Clellen, V. F. (2014). Bilingual education for all: Latino dual language learners with language disabilities. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 17(2), 235-254.
  26. National Academies of Science, Engineering, and Medicine, Promoting the Educational Success of Children and Youth Learning English: Promising Futures (Washington, DC: National Academies Press, 2017), www.nap.edu/catalog/24677/promoting-the-educational-success-ofchildren-and-youth-learning-english.
  27. Espinosa, L. M. (2015). Getting it Right for Young Children from Diverse Backgrounds: Applying Research to Improve Practice with a Focus on Dual Language Learners. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.; Crosson, A. C., & Lesaux, N. K. (2013). Does knowledge of connectives play a unique role in the reading comprehension of English learners and English only students?. Journal of Research in Reading, 36(3), 241–260.
  28. Espinosa, L., & Crandell, J. (2020). Early learning and care for multilingual and dual language learners ages zero to five. In California Department of Education (Ed.), Improving education for multilingual and English learner students: Research to practice (Ch. 4). California Department of Education. www.cde.ca.gov/sp/el/er/improvingmleleducation.asp
  29. Hammer, C. S., Hoff, E., Uchikoshi, Y., Gillanders, C., Castro, D., & Sandilos, L. E. (2014). The Language and Literacy Development of Young Dual Language Learners: A Critical Review. Early childhood research quarterly, 29(4), 715–733. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2014.05.008; GuzmanOrth, D., Lopez, A. A., & Tolentino, F. (2017). A framework for the dual language assessment of young dual language learners in the United States. ETS Research Report Series, 2017(1), 1-19.
  30. Olsen, L., Martinez, M., Herrera, C.B., & Skibbins, H. (2020). Multilingual Programs and Pedagogy: What Teachers and Administrators Need to Know and Do In California Department of Education (Ed.), Improving education for multilingual and English learner students: Research to practice (Ch. 3). California Department of Education. www.cde.ca.gov/sp/el/er/improvingmleleducation.asp
  31. Kim, Y. K., Curby, T. W., & Winsler, A. (2014). Child, family, and school characteristics related to English proficiency development among lowincome, dual language learners. Developmental psychology, 50(12), 1-14.
  32. Dickinson, D. K., & Porsche, M. V. (2011). Relations between language experiences in preschool classrooms and children’s kindergarten and fourth-grade language and reading abilities. Child Development, 82(3), 870–886.; Lonigan, C. J., Goodrich, J. M., & Farver, J. M. (2018). Identifying differences in early literacy skills across subgroups of language-minority children: A latent profile analysis. Developmental psychology, 54(4), 631–647.
  33. Chien, C. N., Kao, L. H., & Wei, L. (2008). The role of phonological awareness development in young Chinese EFL learners. Language Awareness, 17(4), 271–288.; Chow, B. W. Y. (2014). The differential roles of paired associate learning in Chinese and English word reading abilities in bilingual children. Reading and Writing, 27, 1657–1672.; López, L. M., & Greenfield, D. B. (2004). The cross-language transfer of phonological skills of Hispanic Head Start children. Bilingual Research Journal, 28(1), 1–18.
  34. Barac, R., Bialystok, E., Castro, D. C., & Sanchez, M. (2014). The cognitive development of young dual language learners: A critical review. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 29(4), 699–714.; Bialystok, E. (2001). Bilingualism in development: Language, literacy, and cognition. Cambridge University Press; New York, NY.
  35. Olsen, L., Martinez, M., Herrera, C.B., & Skibbins, H. (2020). Multilingual Programs and Pedagogy: What Teachers and Administrators Need to Know and Do In California Department of Education (Ed.), Improving education for multilingual and English learner students: Research to practice (Ch. 3). California Department of Education. www.cde.ca.gov/sp/el/er/improvingmleleducation.asp
  36. Barac, R., Bialystok, E., Castro, D. C., & Sanchez, M. (2014). The cognitive development of young dual language learners: A critical review. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 29(4), 699–714.; Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I., & Luk, G. (2012). Bilingualism: Consequences for mind and brain. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 16(4), 240–250.; California Department of Education (CDE; 2009). Preschool English Learners: Principles and Practices to Promote Language, Literacy, and Learning. A Resource Guide: Second Edition. Sacramento, CA. Available online at www.cde.ca.gov/sp/cd/re/ documents/psenglearnersed2.pdf; Halle, T. G., Whittaker, J. V., Zepeda, M., Rothenberg, L., Anderson, R., Daneri, P., Wessel, J., & Buysse, V. (2014). The social–emotional development of dual language learners: Looking back at existing research and moving forward with purpose. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 29(4), 734–749.
  37. Examples of research drawn from include: Barnett, W.S., Yarosz, D.J., Thomas, J. Jung, K.H., & Blanco, D. (2007). Two-way and monolingual English immersion in preschool education: An experimental comparison. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 22, 277–293.; Durán, L. K., Roseth, C. J., & Hoffman, P. (2010). An experimental study comparing English-only and transitional bilingual education on Spanish-speaking preschoolers’ early literacy development. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 25(2), 207–217.; Durán, L., Roseth, C. J., & Hoffman, P. (2015). Effects of transitional bilingual education on Spanish-speaking preschoolers’ literacy and language development: Year 2 results. Applied Psycholinguistics, 36(4), 921–951.; Méndez, L. I., Crais, E. R., Castro, D. C., & Kainz, K. (2015). A culturally and linguistically responsive vocabulary approach for young Latino dual language learners. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 58(1), 93-106.; Méndez, L. I., Crais, E. R., & Kainz, K. (2018). The impact of individual differences on a bilingual vocabulary approach for Latino preschoolers. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 61(4), 897–909.; Simon-Cereijido, G., & Gutiérrez-Clellen, V. F. (2014). Bilingual education for all: Latino dual language learners with language disabilities. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 17(2), 235–254.
  38. Cummins, J. (2005, September). Teaching for cross-language transfer in dual language education: Possibilities and pitfalls. In TESOL Symposium on dual language education: Teaching and learning two languages in the EFL setting (pp. 1–18). Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages.
  39. Olsen, L., Martinez, M., Herrera, C.B., & Skibbins, H. (2020). Multilingual Programs and Pedagogy: What Teachers and Administrators Need to Know and Do In California Department of Education (Ed.), Improving education for multilingual and English learner students: Research to practice (Ch. 3). California Department of Education. www.cde.ca.gov/sp/el/er/improvingmleleducation.asp
  40. National Academies of Science, Engineering, and Medicine, Promoting the Educational Success of Children and Youth Learning English: Promising Futures (Washington, DC: National Academies Press, 2017), www.nap.edu/catalog/24677/promoting-the-educational-success-ofchildren-and-youth-learning-english.
  41. Castro, D. C., Espinosa, L., & Páez, M. (2011). Defining and measuring quality early childhood practices that promote dual language learners’ development and learning. In M. Zaslow, I. Martinez-Beck, K. Tout, & T. Halle (Eds.), Quality measurement in early childhood settings, (pp. 257–280). Baltimore: Brookes Publishing.; Espinosa, L., & Crandell, J. (2020). Early learning and care for multilingual and dual language learners ages zero to five. In California Department of Education (Ed.), Improving education for multilingual and English learner students: Research to practice (Ch. 4). California Department of Education. www.cde.ca.gov/sp/el/er/improvingmleleducation.asp
  42. Espinosa, L., & Crandell, J. (2020). Early learning and care for multilingual and dual language learners ages zero to five. In California Department of Education (Ed.), Improving education for multilingual and English learner students: Research to practice (Ch. 4). California Department of Education. www.cde.ca.gov/sp/el/er/improvingmleleducation.asp; Schleppegrell, M.J., & Bailey, A. L. (2020). Content Instruction with Integrated and Designated English Language Development in the Elementary Grades In California Department of Education (Ed.), Improving education for multilingual and English learner students: Research to practice (Ch. 5). California Department of Education. www.cde.ca.gov/sp/el/er/ improvingmleleducation.asp
  43. Espinosa, L. & Magruder, E. (2015). Practical and Proven Strategies for Teaching Young Dual Language Learners: In Espinosa, Getting It Right for Young Children from Diverse Backgrounds: Applying Research to Improve Practice (2nd Edition). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson.
  44. Baker, S., Lesaux, N., Jayanthi, M., Dimino, J., Proctor, C. P., Morris, J., . . . & Newman-Gonchar, R. (2014). Teaching academic content and literacy to English learners in elementary and middle school (NCEE 2014–4012). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance. Retrieved from https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/Docs/ practiceguide/english_learners_pg_040114.pdf; Moore, L. C., & Smith, M. M. (2015). Science Education for Young Emergent Bilinguals. In K. Trundle & M. Sackes (Eds.), Research in Early Childhood Science Education (pp. 325-351). New York: Springer.
  45. Schleppegrell, M.J., & Bailey, A. L. (2020). Content Instruction with Integrated and Designated English Language Development in the Elementary Grades In California Department of Education (Ed.), Improving education for multilingual and English learner students: Research to practice (Ch. 5). California Department of Education. www.cde.ca.gov/sp/el/er/improvingmleleducation.asp
  46. Lopez, L. M., & Paez, M.M. (2020). Dual Language Learners: What Early Childhood Educators Need to Know. Baltimore: Brookes Publishing Co.
  47. Olsen, L., Martinez, M., Herrera, C.B., & Skibbins, H. (2020). Multilingual Programs and Pedagogy: What Teachers and Administrators Need to Know and Do In California Department of Education (Ed.), Improving education for multilingual and English learner students: Research to practice (Ch. 3) (p. 37). California Department of Education. www.cde.ca.gov/sp/el/er/improvingmleleducation.asp; Guzman-Orth, D., Lopez, A. A., & Tolentino, F. (2017). A framework for the dual language assessment of young dual language learners in the United States. ETS Research Report Series, 2017(1), 1-19
  48. Espinosa, L., & Crandell, J. (2020). Early learning and care for multilingual and dual language learners ages zero to five. In California Department of Education (Ed.), Improving education for multilingual and English learner students: Research to practice (Ch. 4). California Department of Education. www.cde.ca.gov/sp/el/er/improvingmleleducation.asp
  49. Darling-Hammond, L., Hyler, M.E., Gardner, M. (2017). Effective Teacher Professional Development. Palo Alto, CA: Learning Policy Institute. Available online at https://tinyurl.com/5pjpkj6e
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